The road towards effective governance and management of marine protected areas in South Africa: evolving policies, paradigms and processes

The efficacy of marine protected areas (MPAs) depends on their governance and management. We review history in South Africa recognise four periods. Period 1 (1964–1994) provided initial protection but was based exclusionary, preservationist policies, ad hoc the absence a national plan, neglected social considerations. 2 (1994–2010) began introducing people-oriented focused ecosystems rather than species, strengthened by formation coordinating body. 3 (2010–2019) heralded improvements design, ecosystem representation stakeholder engagement, yet fractured hindered coordination 4 (Since 2019) added challenges managing new offshore MPAs. Progress achieving effective MPA management assessed over these periods for 17 components management, representing key issues which changes could be identified throughout. Fifteen indicated overall improvements—most notably legislation establishment, planning staff training skills—whereas progress most other weaker. Zero net gains were recorded enforcement compliance, complement. Our recommendations flow principally from as faring poorly. conclude with eight critical needs: (1) specify detailed objectives every MPA; (2) fast-track plans MPAs; (3) improve law compliance; (4) enhance participation adjacent communities stakeholders; (5) address MPA-related impacts injustices, benefit sharing; (6) ensure financial sustainability; (7) strengthen evaluations effectiveness; (8) cooperation between government authorities responsible MPAs fisheries.